Visualisation of wormholes in underwater sensor networks: a distributed approach

As a distributed approach, Dis-VoW defends against wormhole attacks in underwater sensor networks without depending on any special hardware. Using the distances measured by the propagation delay of acoustic signals, every sensor reconstructs the local network topology using multi-dimensional scaling. Dis-VoW detects wormholes by visualising the distortions in edge lengths and angles among neighbouring sensors. A normalised variable wormhole indicator is defined based on these distortions to identify fake neighbour connections. Dis-VoW consists of multiple steps and each step can be improved independently.